The Indo-European Family of Languages: Origins, Development, and Branches
The Indo-European Family of Languages: Origins, Development, and Branches
The Indo-European languages are a family of related languages that today are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and also Western and Southern Asia. They are believed to derive from a hypothetical language known as Proto-Indo-European, which is no longer spoken. The text explore the origins, development, and branches of the Indo-European family of languages.
The Indo-European languages are a family of related languages that today are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and also Western and Southern Asia. They are believed to derive from a hypothetical language known as Proto-Indo-European, which is no longer spoken. The text explore the origins, development, and branches of the Indo-European family of languages.
Language Change and Dialectal Differentiation
Language is primarily speech, and writing is only a conventional device for recording sounds. Language is also constantly changing, as the speech of a community or an individual differs from others over time and space. The Latin of Cicero and the French of Voltaire are the products of centuries of development and change.
There is no such thing as uniformity in language. Not only does the speech of a community differ from other communities, but also the speech of a single community and even a single family differ from one another. In particular places, even a district language can be common, but many changes occur in the community.
Although the alteration that is constantly going on in language is for the most part gradual and often escapes the notice of those in whose speech it is taking place, after a period of time the differences that grow up become appreciable. For example, in Old English, they pronounced tea as tay, bone as ban, high as heah etc.
As previously remarked, where constant communication takes place among the people speaking a language, individual differences become merged in the general speech of the community, and certain conformity prevails. But if any separation of one community from another takes place and lasts for a considerable length of time, differences grow up between them. The differences may be slight if the separation is slight, and we have merely local dialects. On the other hand, they may become so considerable as to render the language of one district unintelligible to the speakers of another. In this case, we generally have the development of separate languages. Even where the differentiation has gone so far, however, it is usually possible to recognize a sufficient number of features that the resulting languages still retain in common to indicate that at one time they were one. It is easy to perceive a close kinship between English and German. Milch and milk, brot and bread, fleisch and flesh, wasser and water are obviously only words that have diverged from a common form. In the same way, a connection between Latin and English is indicated by such correspondences as Pater with English father or Frites with brother.
Language is primarily speech, and writing is only a conventional device for recording sounds. Language is also constantly changing, as the speech of a community or an individual differs from others over time and space. The Latin of Cicero and the French of Voltaire are the products of centuries of development and change.
There is no such thing as uniformity in language. Not only does the speech of a community differ from other communities, but also the speech of a single community and even a single family differ from one another. In particular places, even a district language can be common, but many changes occur in the community.
Although the alteration that is constantly going on in language is for the most part gradual and often escapes the notice of those in whose speech it is taking place, after a period of time the differences that grow up become appreciable. For example, in Old English, they pronounced tea as tay, bone as ban, high as heah etc.
As previously remarked, where constant communication takes place among the people speaking a language, individual differences become merged in the general speech of the community, and certain conformity prevails. But if any separation of one community from another takes place and lasts for a considerable length of time, differences grow up between them. The differences may be slight if the separation is slight, and we have merely local dialects. On the other hand, they may become so considerable as to render the language of one district unintelligible to the speakers of another. In this case, we generally have the development of separate languages. Even where the differentiation has gone so far, however, it is usually possible to recognize a sufficient number of features that the resulting languages still retain in common to indicate that at one time they were one. It is easy to perceive a close kinship between English and German. Milch and milk, brot and bread, fleisch and flesh, wasser and water are obviously only words that have diverged from a common form. In the same way, a connection between Latin and English is indicated by such correspondences as Pater with English father or Frites with brother.
The Indo-European Family
The languages thus brought into the relationship by descent or progressive differentiation from a parent speech are conveniently called a family of languages. The Indo-European languages have a large number of branches: Anatolian, Indian, Iranian, Greek, Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Armenian, Tocharian, Balto-Slavic, and Albanian.
The Indo-European population that settled in different regions had traveled for a considerable time in company with other branches. A number of linguistic features are common in some branches but not others. For example, the Indian and Iranian branches share some similarities that distinguish them from other branches.
Since the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language did not develop a writing system, we have no physical evidence of it. The science of linguistics has been trying to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European language using several methods and sources. Although an accurate reconstruction of it seems impossible, we have today a general picture of what Proto-Indo-European speakers had in common, both linguistically and culturally. In addition to the use of comparative methods based on sound changes and word formation patterns, there are studies based on the comparison of myths, laws, and social institutions.
It is highly probable that the earliest speakers of this language originally lived around Ukraine and neighbouring regions in the Caucasus and Southern Russia. They then spread to most of the rest of Europe and later down into India. The earliest possible end of Proto-Indo-European linguistic unity is believed to be around 3400 BCE.
Three branches of the Indo-European family: Indian, Iranian, and Germanic.
The languages thus brought into the relationship by descent or progressive differentiation from a parent speech are conveniently called a family of languages. The Indo-European languages have a large number of branches: Anatolian, Indian, Iranian, Greek, Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Armenian, Tocharian, Balto-Slavic, and Albanian.
The Indo-European population that settled in different regions had traveled for a considerable time in company with other branches. A number of linguistic features are common in some branches but not others. For example, the Indian and Iranian branches share some similarities that distinguish them from other branches.
Since the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language did not develop a writing system, we have no physical evidence of it. The science of linguistics has been trying to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European language using several methods and sources. Although an accurate reconstruction of it seems impossible, we have today a general picture of what Proto-Indo-European speakers had in common, both linguistically and culturally. In addition to the use of comparative methods based on sound changes and word formation patterns, there are studies based on the comparison of myths, laws, and social institutions.
It is highly probable that the earliest speakers of this language originally lived around Ukraine and neighbouring regions in the Caucasus and Southern Russia. They then spread to most of the rest of Europe and later down into India. The earliest possible end of Proto-Indo-European linguistic unity is believed to be around 3400 BCE.
Three branches of the Indo-European family: Indian, Iranian, and Germanic.
Indian Branch
The oldest literature preserved in any Indo-European language is the Vedas or sacred books of India. They fall into four groups: Rig-Veda (a collection of thousands of hymns), Sama-Veda (a collection of melodies), Yajur-Veda (a collection of sacrificial formulas), and Atharva-Veda (a collection of incantations and ritual formulas). It is difficult to assign definite dates but the oldest apparently go back to nearly 1500 BCE.
The language in which they are written is known as Sanskrit (meaning “refined” or “perfected”). It is also found in certain prose writings containing ritual, theological, philosophical and legal texts. In the 4th century BCE, a native grammarian named Panini gave a fixed literary form to Sanskrit. This form is known as Classical Sanskrit and is the medium of an extensive Indian literature, including two national epics: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
Sanskrit existed in a large number of local colloquial dialects known as Prakrits (meaning “natural” or “original”). A number of these eventually attained literary form; one, in particular, Pali (meaning “text” or “canon”), became the language of Buddhism around the middle of the sixth century BCE. From these many colloquial dialects have descended the present languages of India (Hindi), Pakistan (Urdu) and Bangladesh (Bengali), spoken by 600 million people.
The oldest literature preserved in any Indo-European language is the Vedas or sacred books of India. They fall into four groups: Rig-Veda (a collection of thousands of hymns), Sama-Veda (a collection of melodies), Yajur-Veda (a collection of sacrificial formulas), and Atharva-Veda (a collection of incantations and ritual formulas). It is difficult to assign definite dates but the oldest apparently go back to nearly 1500 BCE.
The language in which they are written is known as Sanskrit (meaning “refined” or “perfected”). It is also found in certain prose writings containing ritual, theological, philosophical and legal texts. In the 4th century BCE, a native grammarian named Panini gave a fixed literary form to Sanskrit. This form is known as Classical Sanskrit and is the medium of an extensive Indian literature, including two national epics: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
Sanskrit existed in a large number of local colloquial dialects known as Prakrits (meaning “natural” or “original”). A number of these eventually attained literary form; one, in particular, Pali (meaning “text” or “canon”), became the language of Buddhism around the middle of the sixth century BCE. From these many colloquial dialects have descended the present languages of India (Hindi), Pakistan (Urdu) and Bangladesh (Bengali), spoken by 600 million people.
Iranian Branch
Northwest of India and covering the great plateau of Iran is another important group of languages called Iranian. The Indo-European population that settled this region had travelled for a considerable time in company with the Indian branch. A number of linguistic features are common in the Indian and Iranian groups. Later movements have taken the Iranian languages into remote regions such as South Russia and China. From early times, the region was influenced by Semitic languages and many of the earliest texts are written in Semitic scripts, which make the correct interpretation difficult. The past few decades have contributed greatly to the recovery of early documents, some containing hitherto unknown Iranian languages.
The earliest Iranian languages fall into two divisions: Eastern and Western, represented by Avestan and Old Persian. Avestan is the language that forms part of the Zoroastrian scriptures, known as Avesta. It is divided into Old Avestan (sometimes called Gathic Avestan) and Younger Avestan. Old Avestan is the oldest preserved language of the Iranian sub-branch, the “sister” of Sanskrit, which is the language used in the early Zoroastrian religious texts. Younger Avestan is a later form of the language used in other parts of the Avesta. The earliest datable evidence of this branch dates back to about 1300 BCE.
Another important language of the Iranian sub-branch is Old Persian, which is the language found in the royal inscriptions of the Achaemenid dynasty, starting in the late 6th century BCE. It is written in a cuneiform script adapted from Mesopotamian sources. It is closely related to Avestan but shows some differences due to dialectal variation and historical change.
A later form of this language, found in the early centuries of our era, is known as Middle Iranian or Pahlavi, the official language of church and state during the dynasty of the Sassanids (226– 652 CE). This is the ancestor of modern Persian. Persian, also known as Farsi, has been the language of an important culture and extensive literature since the ninth century. Chief among the literary works in this language is the great Persian epic, the Shahnameh. In addition to Persian, many languages with more or fewer differences are spoken in Pakistan and Afghanistan and numerous languages and dialects in the highlands of Pamir, the shores of the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus valley.
Northwest of India and covering the great plateau of Iran is another important group of languages called Iranian. The Indo-European population that settled this region had travelled for a considerable time in company with the Indian branch. A number of linguistic features are common in the Indian and Iranian groups. Later movements have taken the Iranian languages into remote regions such as South Russia and China. From early times, the region was influenced by Semitic languages and many of the earliest texts are written in Semitic scripts, which make the correct interpretation difficult. The past few decades have contributed greatly to the recovery of early documents, some containing hitherto unknown Iranian languages.
The earliest Iranian languages fall into two divisions: Eastern and Western, represented by Avestan and Old Persian. Avestan is the language that forms part of the Zoroastrian scriptures, known as Avesta. It is divided into Old Avestan (sometimes called Gathic Avestan) and Younger Avestan. Old Avestan is the oldest preserved language of the Iranian sub-branch, the “sister” of Sanskrit, which is the language used in the early Zoroastrian religious texts. Younger Avestan is a later form of the language used in other parts of the Avesta. The earliest datable evidence of this branch dates back to about 1300 BCE.
Another important language of the Iranian sub-branch is Old Persian, which is the language found in the royal inscriptions of the Achaemenid dynasty, starting in the late 6th century BCE. It is written in a cuneiform script adapted from Mesopotamian sources. It is closely related to Avestan but shows some differences due to dialectal variation and historical change.
A later form of this language, found in the early centuries of our era, is known as Middle Iranian or Pahlavi, the official language of church and state during the dynasty of the Sassanids (226– 652 CE). This is the ancestor of modern Persian. Persian, also known as Farsi, has been the language of an important culture and extensive literature since the ninth century. Chief among the literary works in this language is the great Persian epic, the Shahnameh. In addition to Persian, many languages with more or fewer differences are spoken in Pakistan and Afghanistan and numerous languages and dialects in the highlands of Pamir, the shores of the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus valley.
Germanic Branch
The common form that the languages of the Germanic branch had before they became differentiated is known as Germanic or Proto-Germanic. The languages descended from it fall into three groups: East Germanic, North Germanic and West Germanic.
The common form that the languages of the Germanic branch had before they became differentiated is known as Germanic or Proto-Germanic. The languages descended from it fall into three groups: East Germanic, North Germanic and West Germanic.
East Germanic
The principal language of East Germanic is Gothic. By the third century CE, the Goths had spread from the Vistula to the shore of the Black Sea. In the following century, they were Christianized by a missionary named Ulfilas (311-383 CE). The knowledge of Gothic is almost wholly due to the translation of most parts of the Bible made by Ulfilas. Except for some runic inscriptions in Scandinavia, it is the earliest record of a Germanic language we possess. Other languages that are assumed to be East Germanic include Vandalic and Burgundian, though very few texts in these languages are known. Crimean Gothic, the last remaining East Germanic language, is believed to have survived until the 18th century in isolated areas of Crimea.
The principal language of East Germanic is Gothic. By the third century CE, the Goths had spread from the Vistula to the shore of the Black Sea. In the following century, they were Christianized by a missionary named Ulfilas (311-383 CE). The knowledge of Gothic is almost wholly due to the translation of most parts of the Bible made by Ulfilas. Except for some runic inscriptions in Scandinavia, it is the earliest record of a Germanic language we possess. Other languages that are assumed to be East Germanic include Vandalic and Burgundian, though very few texts in these languages are known. Crimean Gothic, the last remaining East Germanic language, is believed to have survived until the 18th century in isolated areas of Crimea.
North Germanic
North Germanic languages, also called Scandinavian languages, are a group of Germanic languages consisting of modern standard Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroese. The earliest traces of these languages are runic inscriptions from the third century CE. The common form of a Scandinavian language is conveniently spoken as Old Norse and in the 11th century CE, dialectal differences are noticed. These languages are usually divided into two groups: an Eastern group including Danish and Swedish and a Western group including Norwegian and Icelandic. Norwegian
North Germanic languages, also called Scandinavian languages, are a group of Germanic languages consisting of modern standard Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroese. The earliest traces of these languages are runic inscriptions from the third century CE. The common form of a Scandinavian language is conveniently spoken as Old Norse and in the 11th century CE, dialectal differences are noticed. These languages are usually divided into two groups: an Eastern group including Danish and Swedish and a Western group including Norwegian and Icelandic. Norwegian
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